Classification of Persons

The Roman law distinguished three kinds of personal status, or degree of legal capacity, and classified human beings with respect thereto as follows:

(1) The status of Freedom (libertatis) according to which persons were either free (liberi) or slaves (servi). Free persons were either freeborn (ingenui) or freedmen (libertini).

(2) The status of Citizenship (civitatis), according to which freemen were either Roman citizens (cives) or aliens (peregrini).

(3) The status of Family (familiae), according to which citizens were either independent (sui juris) or subject to the authority of another (alieni juris).

Among the Romans legal capacity was the exception, as among modern nations it is the rule. Even free persons enjoying the status of citizens were usually in some condition of subordination or dependence in respect to their family relations. The only person fully independent was the head of a family, or paterfamilias, above the age of twenty-five years.

There were several distinct states of subordination or dependence. Besides slavery, which was a state of complete subordination, there was a condition of quasi-slavery known as mancipipium.

Married women were under the marital power (manus) of their husband, children were under the paternal power (potestas) of their fathers. Unmarried women and orphan children under the age of puberty were under guardianship (tutela mulierum and tutela impuberum). Orphans from the age of puberty to the age of twenty-five years, lunatics and spendthrifts were under another form of guardianship (cura).

Of these instances of the power of one person over another mancipium, manus, and tutela mulierum were obsolete in the time of Justinian.

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Effects of Marriage with Manus

By the strict marriage the wife passed into the marital power of her husband {in manum viri). The manus or marital power may be regarded as a particular form of the patria potestas. An uxor in manu was a member of her husband's household. Although called a materfamilias, this term did not have a meaning corresponding to the term paterfamilias. The wife was not the head of the family. She stood legally in the position of a daughter {in loco filiafamilias) of her husband. If she had children she was regarded as a sister of her own children. The relation of husband and wife, both as regards the wife's person and her property, was governed by the same rules of law as governed the relation of father and child. The law of husband and wife may, therefore, be considered as merely a particular branch of the law of parent and child. The husband had, in general, the same power over the person of his wife in manu as the father had over his child. Anciently, it may be suppo...
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Slavery by Birth

The children of a female slave became the slaves of her master. The status of the father as free or slave was immaterial. The general rule governing the determination of the status of a child, whether as free or slave, or as citizen or alien, was as follows : Children born in lawful wedlock had the status of the father at the moment of conception, children born out of wedlock had the status of the mother at the moment of birth. Hence if the father of a child of a lawful marriage was free at the moment of conception, the child was free although the father should subsequently lose his freedom. As to children born out of wedlock, the general rule, as above stated, was that it was the status of the mother at the moment of birth that determined the status of the child. If the mother was free at the moment of conception but a slave at the moment of birth, the child was a slave, and conversely. This was the earlier law, but the rule was modified in the interest of liber...
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Mandate (Mandatum)

Mandate (mandatum) was a contract by which one person mandatarius agreed to do something gratuitously at the request of another mandator , who, on his part, agreed to save him harmless from all loss in so doing. The mandator was said to give the mandatory a mandate, or commission to do the act in question. The term mandatum is sometimes translated "agency", but this translation is misleading. The mandatory is not properly described as an agent. Mandate was the only gratuitous consensual contract; the others, sale, hiring, and partnership, all being founded upon a consideration. Like the others, it was a bona fidei negotium , and bound the parties to do all that was required by good faith. It was of the essence of the contract of mandate that the mandatory should act gratuitously. But while this was true in a strict legal sense, it was allowed to agree upon a sum to be paid as a honorium , or salary, which might be recovered only by a special action and not b...
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